Much changed in Liphook over the 19th century.  The presentation tells how Liphook developed from an agricultural parish with rural poverty resulting in the outbreak of Swing Riots in the early century.  Was this the cause of moral decadence? The local vicar certainly thought so! Coaching brought prosperity until it was killed off by the railway.  And from the very invention of the motor car everyone complained about the traffic!

The City of London has a long and fascinating history which is still played out in the many marvellous ceremonials and pageantry of today's world-leading financial centre.  This talk will take the form of a virtual guided walk around the streets of the Square Mile as it is known, highlighting some key sites and telling stories to bring the past to life.  For example have you ever pondered the question: 'What did the Romans ever do for us?' or wondered why a 'hallmark' is so called?

English governesses were much sought after in the royal courts of Europe in the nineteenth century.  Meet Miss Augusta Maria Byng, governess to the younger children of the Crown Prince and Princess of Prussia, who became a trusted friend to her mistress, the daughter of Queen Victoria.

Her son, HG Wells, thought her "the worst housekeeper that ever was thought of." Her diaries and his writings give remarkable insight into her life of hardship and disasters. Why did she become Uppark's housekeeper at almost 60, before eventually finding peace in Liss? Was she really as bad as HG suggests? Hear her story and decide for yourself.

LAHS will be 40 in 2025.   Join our Chairperson, Nichola Court, for an illustrated talk which explores the origins of the Society, our past events and achievements, and introduces some of the key items from the Liss Collection, which is curated by the Society.   This talk is part of the programme of events to mark our 40th birthday.

The talk will cover why I joined the Royal Navy - my career and progression from a Junior Seaman 2nd class to Command of HMS Ledbury during the Gulf War of 1991. The places I visited when on operational tours included the Far East, Australia, North and South America and the Falkland Islands. I shall mention a few of the notable folk I met and the experiences and opportunities that came my way.

Another speaker back by popular demand!   Helen is a costume historian who specialises in the Regency period and in men’s wear.   She will discuss costume cut, construction and evolution.   Items from her collection, both authentic and reproduction, will be on show and there will be a chance for a spot of dressing up along the way.

Back by popular demand, Dave will talk about life in the Falkland Islands.   Anecdotes from the islands including the 1982 conflict and his return in 1997 as the Royal Navy Officer in Charge of communications.

Bill’s talk will use social history as a platform to show the development of the railway network to Midhurst and the wider implications of the railway system on the nation.  It is not a technical talk and includes such events as the runaway engine at Petworth, Richard Cobden’s last journey to Midhurst, the diving locomotive at Cocking, the Royal Train at Singleton and the arrival of evacuees during the 2nd World War.

Paul McCue is a LAHS member, but his presentation will be while wearing his hat of Executive Trustee of the educational charity SECRET WW2 – The Secret WW Learning Network – which aims to raise public awareness of the secret and clandestine aspects of WW2.   Paul will be drawing from his 1992 book on the aerodrome’s history, particularly in WW2, but will bring us right up to date on development plans for the site.

The unique atmosphere of The Harrow Inn has long been regarded fondly, both by locals and those from far and wide.   The history and activities of the pub are traced through more than 90 years of continuous occupation by the Dodd family.   It goes back to a time long before they came to Steep, some of their story has much in common with a tale from Charles Dickens.   Fran is the author of ‘The Dodd Family and The Harrow Inn Steep’, a Steep Local History Publication.

Paul is a London born artist and designer, now living in Liss, who exhibits with the Royal Society of British Artists.   He spent 5 years visiting and painting piers in the UK, Europe and the USA.   All the paintings and some of Paul’s memorabilia were published in his book “100 Piers, Painting at the Water’s Edge”.
This talk will concentrate on our piers along the south coast, their history and how they ended up as they are today, plus how to sell the same painting twice.

The Augustinian Priory was founded in the late 12th century and survived up to the dissolution of the monasteries in the reign of Henry VIII.   The remains became a farm and manor house for the district, eventually becoming part of the Cowdray estate at Midhurst.   In 1905 the house was bought by diplomat and politian Arthur Ponsonby and his wife Dorothea.   Their successors, including the speaker, live there to this day.   Highlights are the unique wall paintings and the connection to composer Sir Hubert Parry, famed for his setting of Blake’s Jerusalem.

An illustrated talk which explores the life of Madge Turner, the Chichester-born 'suffragette' and campaigner.

Asia, Africa, India, North America, Continental Europe, and of course the UK, Ireland and the Falklands are covered in the collection.   Passing out parades, regimental sports, amateur dramatics, food on the march, famous regimental names and some unexpected treasures; material relating to Albania at the time Enver Hoxha came to power and images of the Christmas Day truce during WW1.

When William Morris died at the age of just 62, his doctor commented, “he died of being William Morris and doing more work than most 10 men”.   Morris was a designer (and owner of ‘Morris & Company’, the leading Arts & Crafts design company of the last ¼ of the 19th century).   He was also a poet, novelist, Socialist thinker, publisher, architectural critic and activist and an artist.

Starting with the British penal system from the 17th and early 18th centuries through to the Victorian era.  Public executions continued until December 1867 and the death sentence was abolished in 1969.   On to the modern day prison service with interesting facts along the way.   Mark worked in the prison service for 33 years, firstly as a Prison Officer at Wandsworth in 1985 until retirement in 2017 as Head of Security at Winchester Prison.

London has hosted the Olympic Games on 3 occasions.   Everyone will remember the successful Olympics of 2012 and, possibly, a few may remember the Austerity Games in 1948.   40 years previously the 1st UK Olympics were held at White City in west London.   These games were controversial for a number of reasons and the speaker will present an illustrated account of that summer of 1908 and its aftermath.

Shippam’s remains one of West Sussex’s most famous businesses.   But how did a small butcher’s business established in the 18th century end up selling more than 53 million jars of meat and fish paste by the 1950’s?   This illustrated talk and film explores the fascinating history behind the much-loved brand.

At 3, Bette, inherits the immense wealth of the Percy dynasty, including Petworth, Syon and Alnwick.   By 15, she is on her 3rd husband, having fled her loathsome 2nd husband and been implicated in his violent murder.   Is her 3rd husband any better?   She survives to become Queen Anne’s closest confidante and a mistress of court intrigue (see the film “The Favourite”).   Her vast wealth transforms Petworth into a grand ducal palace.  

Members are invited to bring along their own items of historical interest for display.  Those members who would like to will be able to give a short presentation about an item or event which they feel will be of interest to fellow members.

This will be a very informal evening linked to our Christmas party.

From early fermentation of grains, Roman Tavernas, the influence of Monasteries, Ale Wives and early Inns to the development of Victorian Tower Breweries Brian will cover raw materials and production processes with a look at our local brewing heritage and its demise.  Huge changes took place in the 1980’s the echoes of which are still being felt today.  Micro Craft Brewers have blossomed in recent years, will our current economic climate deal another blow to this ancient industry?

Helen McArdle MA is an experienced maker of historic costume, who has worked professionally at the Royal Shakespeare Company and Colchester Mercury theatres. She is now a freelance maker and costume historian who specialises in the fashions of the Regency period and in men’s wear.   She will refer to  a selection of anecdotes from her working life whilst discussing costume cut, construction and evolution.   Items from her collection both authentic and reproduction will be on show and there will be a chance for a spot of dressing up along the way!

Using early photographic evidence Tim will paint a picture of a railway town which attracted famous residents to Haslemere and Hindhead for its beautiful countryside and easy access to London.  That is only part of the story of this ancient town on the borders of Surrey, Sussex and Hampshire.  Tim is a long serving volunteer at the Haslemere Educational Museum.

Returning by popular demand, Sally will continue her guided tour amongst the lesser known but intriguing and often historically significant corners of our capital city.  With the first Coronation for 70 years taking place in May, Sally will no doubt include curiosities connected with the history of coronations through the centuries.

Dating from 1871 and associated with two distinguished architects, firstly Sir Arthur Blomfield then in 1930 with Sir Edward Maufe who also designed Guildford Cathedral, St Mary's has undergone major works to improve facilities and enhance its notable features.  For many parishioners, of course, its outward features are of less importance than the part it has played in the lives of their families and ancestors.

Starting at the Book of Daniel and covering alarming Victorian excursions into medicine on route to today's ground breaking medical trials, this talk will be both entertaining and informative.  Peter lectured at Portsmouth University, was tutor for the Open University and a Senior Statistician in the Pharmaceutical Industry.

Henryk Zygalski lectured at the Polish University College in Putney which was subsumed into the University of Surrey.  Dermot Turing, nephew of Alan Turing and author of "XYZ - The Real Story of How Enigma was Broken" gives great credit to Zygalski and his fellow Poles.

The talk will be based on an imaginary walk to visit people, locations and events that form part of the village history.  It will include topics that have not been covered in depth previously with some of the images being unfamiliar to most members.  There will be a few intriguing facts as well!

Bring a plate of your own food, and a drink. Glasses will be provided.

The South Downs Campaign: how the South Downs became a National Park

Margaret is a member of our Society and served for its first 10 years as Chairman of South Downs National Park. She was an active member of the campaign to achieve Park status and, working with her late husband Nigel, helped to ensure Liss was included.

Anglo Saxon Southampton

During what was known as the Dark Ages, approximately 400AD to when William the Conqueror arrived in 1066, Southampton became one of the most important Anglo-Saxon towns in England. Andy will unpick this story by exploring the archaeological evidence they left behind.

The Diplomatic Playboy – King Edward VII

Sue tells us more about one of Queen Victoria’s children, her eldest son and heir, Bertie, who became King Edward VII. As a young Prince, he showed no promise at all as he sowed his wild oats and gambled. But he eventually became one of our most statesmanlike Kings. Sue will draw parallels between our current Prince of Wales, Prince Charles, and Bertie during their long waits to become British monarch.

The Tradegy of Telavåg - the worst war crime suffered by Norway in WW2 and its roots in Liss

A presentation by LAHS member Paul McCue outlines the part played by the secret agent training school at Stodham Park, Liss in this Norwegian catastrophe.  Followed by a shoirt documentary film from Norway, with English subtitles, that details the impact of Nazi brutality on the village of Televag.

Admiral George Anson, Baron Soberton, his Life and Legacy

Anson circumnavigated the globe, captured a treasure galleon and became rich (buying the Manor of Soberton where Duncan lives in the Meon Valley). He had the most remarkable voyage, showing great leadership and when in authority changed the Royal Navy much for the better.

Kate Harvey – The Deaf Suffragist, my Formidable Granny

Kate Harvey and Charlotte Despard were active suffragists who undertook a caravan tour in the south of England promoting the cause of Votes for Women. Ann saw her Granny last when she was about 11 years old, staying at her Sussex home in 1940.

Knowing Two Eccentrics; John Betjeman and James Herriot’s Partner, Siegfried

Susan was PA to Sir John Betjeman. Her time with him and his celebrated teddy bear Archie, has provided her with endless amusing anecdotes. Seigfried Farnon, the character played by Robert Hardy in the TV series “All Creatures Great and Small” was a dear friend.

John Dine, Petworth’s ancient butler, explores how dramatically Christmas altered from his Georgian youth to late Victorian times.   Why did Father Christmas change from green to red?   Did the Georgians have Christmas trees, presents and turkeys?   What were Mumpers and Hodlers?  Why was Boxing Day so important?   Bob gets fully into the role, so expect a great addition to our annual Christmas Party.

Discover the amazing archaeology that can be found on Petersfield Heath.  From one of the largest Bronze Age burial sites in the south of England to a Stone Age hunter gatherer camp this talk will bring you up to date with the latest finds from the People of the Heath Archaeological Project.   Ryan is the Learning & Engagement Officer at Petersfield Museum.

Those lovely rusty signs for the South Downs National Park commemorate the Wealden Iron Industry which, at its height, saw over 100 blast furnaces dotted across the landscape of Kent and Sussex from the 15th to the 19th centuries.   The Fernhurst Furnace site demonstrates the sophistication of this almost forgotten industry which will have played a part in the history of many local families, including those of us living ‘over the border’ in Hampshire.

Our neighbouring town of Midhurst in West Sussex has a fascinating past and this talk will take a brief look at its ancient origins before using photographic evidence to tell us about the life and times of the town during relatively recent history.   Known for the Cowdray Estate and world class Polo tournaments, Midhurst is also home to the headquarters of the South Downs National Park.

West Horsley Place has belonged to 9 different families – courtiers, soldiers, diplomats and scholars – over the centuries, occasionally linked by marriage and inheritance through the female line.   In 2014 Mary, Duchess of Roxburghe died leaving the house and 380 acres to her nephew, Bamber Gascoigne.   The Gascoigne family set up a charity with the mission of restoring the house and estate as a centre for performing and visual arts, crafts and history.

Online arrangements tbc PLEASE NOTE THAT UNDER THE PRESENT COVIS-19 CONDITIONS THIS TALK WILL BE BY ZOOM ONLY, TO BE RECEIVED IN YOUR OWN HOMES.  joining instructions will be sent by email to society members.

Trinity House looks after lighthouses around England, Wales and the Channel Islands, marks and clears wrecks, helps develop state of the art navigation tools and acts as Nautical Assessors in Admiralty Court cases.  The cadet scheme trains merchant navy officers and yachtsmen, you can even book a holiday aboard a working TH vessel or in a converted lighthouse.

Online arrangements tbc PLEASE NOTE THAT UNDER THE PRESENT COVIS-19 CONDITIONS THIS TALK WILL BE BY ZOOM ONLY, TO BE RECEIVED IN YOUR OWN HOMES.  joining instructions will be sent by email to society members.

The non-tidal River Thames runs for 135 miles from where it rises in the Cotswolds as little more than a trickle of water to making its way to Teddington, going through 45 locks on the way.   We will travel through beautiful countryside, historic towns and pretty villages following a popular route for boaters and walkers alike.   Blue Badge guide Sally has previously spoken to the Society on the history of the City of London.

Online arrangements tbc PLEASE NOTE THAT UNDER THE PRESENT COVIS-19 CONDITIONS THIS TALK WILL BE BY ZOOM ONLY, TO BE RECEIVED IN YOUR OWN HOMES.  joining instructions will be sent by email to society members.

Seafarers and Scurvy, the Local Connections.   How knowledge of this disease and it's treatment grew, and yet how slow that knowledge was to be put into effect.   For example, Scott's Antarctic expedition was affected by scurvy and cases still occur today.    Duncan Colin Jones is a retired physician and will use his  knowledge of scurvy in South East Hampshire to illustrate how this now thankfully rare but once debilitating disease affected seafarers across the globe.

Online arrangements tbc PLEASE NOTE THAT UNDER THE PRESENT COVIS-19 CONDITIONS THIS TALK WILL BE BY ZOOM ONLY, TO BE RECEIVED IN YOUR OWN HOMES.  joining instructions will be sent by email to society members.

Ron will present short films of local history interest including:

1. Petersfield in the 1920's (look out for Taro Fair as an horse fair)
2. The Longmoor Railway
3. A presentation about some aspects of Liss history.

This talk will take place via Zoom only.  An email will be sent out to members nearer the time with details of how to view on your own devices at home.

Online arrangements TBC

Paul McCue will give this talk via Zoom.  Many of us know a little about Stodham Park and its role in WW2 but Paul has been researching this subject and will have lots of interesting information for us all.

Paul is a trustee of "The Secret WW2 Learning Network".  Look them up online to see what a wide range of things this charitable organisation does. https://www.secret-ww2.net

This talk will be transmitted via Zoom and viewed, by prior booking arrangement only, in the Triangle; and a link will be supplied for those able to watch it at home.

Available places at the Triangle are limited due to COVID-19 restrictions in place at the time. 

Booking for this talk will open on 1st November 2020 and can be made with Sharon Stratton on 01730 895644 or email jimandsharons@gmail.com  and tell her if you are a single or double booking. 

Please do not attend if you have not booked in.

A true story about a series of events in the Chagos Archipelago in the Indian Ocean during the late 1970’s and early 1980’s, illustrating how news can be changed or missed at the whim of a reporter or broadcaster.   Nigel joined Dartmouth Naval College as a cadet aged 16 and spent 33 years in the Royal Navy before retiring at the age of 50.   Yes, there is a year missing, but that is part of the story.

The Avebury Circle in Wiltshire extends to 10 times the acreage of Stonehenge containing not just a stone circle, but ritual avenues of stones connected to other man-made monuments as well as the largest Neolithic chambered tomb in Britain and in Silbury Hill, the largest man-made mound in Europe.  Recent archaeological finds make the area even more intriguing.

In the stern struggle between Charles 1st and his Parliament, Hampshire played an important part, find out what happened in our local area.  Nick and his friends come in costume, to give us a flavour of the period.

The villagers of Boxgrove have worshipped in this beautiful church for 900 years, find out about its extensive history and the life of the villagers.

We have split this talk up as Queen Victoria had 9 children.  This second part is about Princess Helena, Princess Louise, Prince Arthur Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, Prince Leopold Duke of Albany and Princess Beatrice.

Pewter is a wonderful but forgotten metal with a long history, adopted by most of Europe.  Roman pewter the oldest known has been found at several sites.  Hillary brings some items of pewter to show us.

The modern hop was developed from a wild plant as ancient as history itself, it goes back to the first century AD, probably originally from Egypt.  Find out how very important hops were to Hampshire.

Hatchlands is a house set in 400 acres of parkland, it has some of Robert Adams earliest work and a wonderful collection of paintings and musical instruments.  Find out about all the people who have lived there.

He was one of the most important local figures in the first half of the 20th Century.

Discover the sensational story of a superstar in 1760's London.  Why did Reynolds paint her more than any other woman.

John is a historian, poet, playwright and publisher.  There has been over 500 years of papermaking in Britain.

If you come to the Christmas Party please bring a plate of finger food per person to share, and your own beverage.  Glasses supplied.  

Gill is the visiting Professor at the Otter Gallery and a GP.  The Land Army had a major role in helping to feed Britain, find out how it developed.

As Queen Victoria had 9 children we have split this talk up.  Part 1 is about Vicky - The Empress Frederick of Germany; Bertie - King Edward VII; Alice - The Grand Duchess of Hesse and Rhine; and Alfie - The Duke of Sax-Coberg and Gotha.

Sally is a Blue Badge guide and has the Freedom of the City of London.  Find out how our greatest city developed into what it is today.

This is a follow up to our last talk by Dave, and is from the Round Tower to the International Port.  Experience the sights and sounds of a cruise without needing seasick pills.

Enjoy the sumptuous paintings of the celebrated Pompeo Batoni and stories of his patrons.  He was the painter of choice for Grand Tourists flocking to Rome in the 18th century and was patronised by popes and princely courts across Europe.  Today his pictures adorn great houses and collections.  He is particularly well represented at Uppark.

Picture attributed to

By Pompeo Batoni - http://www.non-solo-arte.com/pompeo-batoni.html, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=13446505

The Jolliffes bought the Manor of Petersfield so they could send two Members of Parliament to London.  Find out what happened to them.

This talk presents a snapshot of the lives of some of the world's famous writers, all of whom have a connection with east Hampshire.  The title refers to the fact that most of them wrote with either a quill or steel nibbed pen, 1 or 2 graduating to a fountain pen and even a typewriter.  How times change!  Charles Dickens, Charlotte Bronte and especially H G Wells will feature, and we will look at the fascinating connections between these writers and how the most local lived their daily lives in Hampshire, Surrey and Sussex.

A guessing game, but who know's you could be right?

If you have an object that puzzles you, why not bring it along and perhaps we can name it and explain it.

If you come to the Christmas Party please bring a plate of finger food per person to share, and your own beverage.  Glasses supplied.  

Set in 1700 acres of ancient forest, Stansted House is one of the most elegant houses in the south.

The discovery of letters from a Great, Great Aunt, leads to a 30 year search for the identity of an Australian pioneer woman.

Home of the famous air show, and now the most modern and efficient business aviation airport in Europe.

Discover the sights and sounds of the Solent and Portsmouth harbour.  Lifejackets and seasick pills will be available!

On a Sunday in June 1914 a shot was fired that started events that led to global war.

Discover Conan Doyle's connection to the local area.

Petworth has the most important art collection in the National Trust, but it can be overwhelming.  Come and find out how each has its own fascinating history.

Image By Martinvl - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=48847286

Katherine West is the curator of Petersfield Museum, she is bringing a selection of costumes and assessories to show us, explaining their function and history.

Please note that this is a Thursday

Discover the secrets of the Inns and Pubs in Petersfield, and the innovations and techniques of brewing over the years.

The Dramatic story of one of the most remarkable women in history. She became the most painted women in Europe. Discover how she rose up only to crash castastrophically.

Followed by the AGM

A illustrated presentation about the life in exile of the Empress Eugenie the widow of  the exiled Napoleon 3rd , who took refuge in England from 1870 untill her death.

Subject to change but possible talk on the above

Triangle Centre

The Dardanelles formerly known asHellespont is a narrow strait in northwesternTurkey connecting the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmara. It is one of the Turkish Straits, along with its counterpart, the Bosphorus.

It is located at approximately 40°13′N 26°26′E. The strait is 61 kilometres (38 mi) long but only 1.2 to 6 kilometres (0.75 to 3.73 mi) wide, averaging 55 metres (180 ft) deep with a maximum depth of 103 metres (338 ft).

Water flows in both directions along the strait, from the Sea of Marmara to the Aegean via a surface current and in the opposite direction via an undercurrent.

Like the Bosphorus, it separates Europe (the Gallipoli peninsula) from the mainland of Asia (Anatolia). The strait is an international waterway, and together with the Sea of Marmara and the Bosporus, the Dardanelles connects the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea.

Nicholas II was a highly sensitive man who preferred to be with his family than involve himself in the day-today running of his nation. A weak man, he was frequently bullied into doing things by his overbearing wife, Alexandra.

Nicholas had married Princess Alexandra in 1894. She was the daughter of the Grand Duke of Hesse and a grand-daughter of Queen Victoria. The daughter who came from a small German state, found herself married to the position of Empress of all Russians. She embraced the orthodox faith with all the fanaticism of a convert and she decided to convince all at court that she was more Russian than the Russians. She was a very strong supporter of Russification introduced by Alexander III and to all intents she bullied her husband. Nicholas was a family man – his wife wanted him to display the talents of his father – to be aggressive, strong and resolute.

Alexandra was never popular in Russia. Her personality upset and angered very many of the people she met. However, despite her attempts to get her husband to be more resolute, she was a devoted wife to Nicholas. Alexandra was also determined to produce a male heir for the Romanov dynasty. In 1904, amidst much celebration, Alexis was born – a male heir to ensure the continuation of the Romanovs. However, the happiness of Nicholas and Alexandra was short lived as Alexis was diagnosed as a haemophiliac and was not expected to live long. Both parents devoted much time to the boy and left the government of Russia to others. Alexandra was a very protective mother, but she was also determined to see that her son became tsar. Alexandra believed that she was more suited to do this than her husband:

“The emperor unfortunately is weak, but I am not and I intend to be firm.” Alexandra, writing in 1905

After the years of repression under Alexander III, people in Russia hoped for a new start under Nicholas. However, the reign got off to a bad start from the first day. At the coronation ceremony in 1894, the crowd gathered for the traditional distribution of gifts. The crowd was understandably large and the police had to force a way through for Nicholas. This caused a stampede and 1,300 people were crushed to death and many more were injured. Despite this tragedy, Nicholas and Alexandra acted as if nothing had happened and attended the coronation ball that evening just hours after the deaths. This event showed that Nicholas, the sensitive family man, had less sensitivity for those not in his gilded circle.

As a ruler, Nicholas had many failings. However, the most important was his inability to dominate events and take charge. As an example, his coronation address was merely a repeat of what Alexander III had said. The domination of his father was also shown in the fact that he kept most of his father’s ministers rather than appoint his own. However, these men did have the tried and tested experience of knowledge of government; they also knew how Alexander’s mind worked and what he wanted for Russia. With Nicholas, they had a tsar who wanted to continue his father’s policies but had neither the driving force nor the abilities of him. Senior ministers such as Plehve and Witte started to carry out their own policies as opposed to what Nicholas might have wanted. He, in turn, was more concerned with family issues and was seemingly bewildered by major affairs of state.

Nicholas had inherited a nation undergoing enormous changes. Whether Russia would have experienced serious social unrest under Alexander III is open to speculation. However, the industrialisation of Russia was starting to create serious social problems in the cities which the authorities were not dealing with – and probably could not deal with. The speed of industrialisation, financed by French and other European money, had developed a momentum of its own. Therefore, Nicholas had inherited, in 1894, a nation that may well have rebelled without the input of Lenin and other revolutionaries. What would Alexander have done in such a situation? At least he would have been decisive even if his decisions may have been wrong. Nicholas simply could not be decisive.

His position was not helped by the fact that his wife had a series of favourites who used their position to influence him via his wife. The influence of her most favourite was a disaster for Russia – Gregory Rasputin.

The three most senior government ministers under Nicholas who dominated Russia were Pobedonestev, Witte and Plehve.

Count Witte was foreign minister. He had alienated many in government because he did not come from old landed stock – he was a nouveau riche who had made his money as a railway entrepreneur. As a man who had been born into a low middle class family, his rise to power had been spectacular, even if it had brought with it jealousy within the royal court. However, his business acumen had led to large sums of foreign capital being invested in Russia. He also got foreign loans for the government.

Pobedonestev continued with the Holy Synod’s policy of preaching obedience.

Plehve was a hard-liner. He was seen as a government enforcer who was solely guided by doing what he thought was best for the tsar. In 1900, Russia was threatened by a series of industrial strikes. Plehve’s only policy to answer these strikes was “execute, execute, execute”. In July 1904, he was killed by a bomb.

Only Witte tried to introduce policies that reflected the growing complexity of Russia’s society in the reign of Nicholas. However, a great deal of his time and energy was taken up with taking on Plehve – a man he hated, and the hatred was mutual.